10 Computer note

1. Networking and Telecommunication

Transmission Signal

A transmission signal is a wave or electrical current used to carry information from one place to another through a medium, such as wires or air. It enables the transmission of data, sound, or images from a transmitter to a receiver.

Analog Signal

An analog signal is a continuous signal that varies smoothly over time, representing information through changes in amplitude or frequency. It can take any value within a given range.

Example: The human voice in a telephone line or the signal from a microphone.

Digital Signal

A digital signal represents information using discrete values, usually in the form of 0s and 1s. Unlike analog signals, digital signals do not vary continuously.

Example: Signals used in computers, mobile phones, and digital watches.

Communication

Communication is the process of sending and receiving data and information between two or more people.

Telecommunication

Telecommunication refers to the transmission of data and information from one place to another for communication purposes.

Examples: Mobile phones, internet calls, television, landline, radio, etc.

Data Communication

Data communication is the process of transferring data and information between computers and other electronic devices.

Examples: E-mail, chat, phone calls.

Components of Data Communication

The basic elements of data communication are:

Data (Message): Information to be communicated between sender and receiver.
Sender: Device used to transmit data.
Medium: Channel through which the sender and receiver communicate.
Receiver: Device used to receive data.
Protocol: A set of rules followed by the sender and receiver.

Data Transmission Mode

Data transmission mode refers to the way data is transmitted from one location to another.

Types:

Simplex Mode
Duplex Mode (Half Duplex & Full Duplex)

Simplex Mode:
Transmission occurs in only one direction. It is unidirectional.

Examples: Radio, newspaper, television broadcasting, books.

Duplex Mode:
Transmission occurs in both directions, making it bi-directional.

Types of Duplex Mode:

Half Duplex: Data flows in both directions but one direction at a time.
- Examples: Walkie-talkies, wireless handsets.
Full Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
- Examples: Mobile phones, landline phones.

Communication Media / Transmission Media

A communication media is a channel or path through which data and information are transmitted between connected devices in a network.

Types of Communication Media:

Guided (Wired / Bounded) Communication Media
Unguided (Wireless / Unbounded) Communication Media

Guided Communication Media (Wired)

These use cables or wires to transfer data. It is fast, secure, and reliable.

Types of Wired Cables:

Twisted Pair Wire
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable

Twisted Pair Wire:
Two wires twisted together to reduce interference. Commonly used in telephone lines and LANs.

Connector: RJ-45
Crosstalk: Disturbance caused by electromagnetic interference.

Types of Twisted Pair:

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): No extra shielding; common in telephone wiring and LANs.
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Extra shielding reduces interference, improving signal quality.

Difference between UTP and STP:

Feature	UTP	STP
Data transfer speed	Slower	Faster
EMI protection	Less	Better

Coaxial Cable:
Cable with central conductor, insulation, shielding, and outer cover. Used for TV and internet.

Connectors: BNC, T

Fiber Optic Cable:
Transmits data as light through thin glass or plastic fibers. High-speed, high-capacity, minimal signal loss.

Connectors: SMA, ST, SC, FC

Unguided Communication Media (Wireless)

Transmits data through the air using electromagnetic waves without cables.

Types:

Radio Wave
Microwave
Infrared
Satellite

Radio Wave Transmission:
Used in broadcasting, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. Common in rural areas of Nepal.

Microwave Transmission:
Line-of-sight communication for long distances (e.g., satellite). Requires tall towers and repeaters.

Infrared Transmission:
Short-range, line-of-sight communication. Cannot pass through walls (e.g., remote controls).

Satellite Communication:
Satellites act as relay stations for long-distance communication (TV, internet, phone).

Computer Network

A computer network is a group of two or more computers connected via wired or wireless media to exchange data and share resources.

Services Provided: Printing, messaging, applications, file sharing, databases, etc.

Advantages:

Share hardware (printers, scanners, storage)
Global communication via Internet
Centralized administration and backup

Disadvantages:

Risk of virus/malware spread
Requires skilled personnel
High setup cost
Potential cybercrime risk

"Computer network reduces operation cost" – Sharing software and hardware reduces the need for multiple copies.

Basic Network Elements

Hardware: Computer, modem, hub, NIC card, repeater
Software: Network Operating System (NOS), Protocols, Device Drivers

NIC (Network Interface Card): Connects a computer to a network (wired or wireless).

Connector: Links devices for data exchange.

RJ-45 (UTP), BNC (Coaxial), ST (Fiber optic)

Hub: Connects multiple devices; broadcasts data to all.

Switch: Connects multiple devices; sends data only to intended recipient.

Hub vs Switch:

Feature	Hub	Switch
Speed	Slower	Faster
Data transmission	Broadcast to all	Sent to specific device

Bridge: Connects networks with similar protocols.

Router: Determines the best path for data between networks.

Gateway: Connects networks with different protocols.

Repeater: Regenerates weak signals for long-distance transfer.

Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): Converts digital data to analog for transmission and vice versa.

Modulation: Digital → Analog
Demodulation: Analog → Digital

Bandwidth: Maximum data transmitted over a network per time unit (bps for digital, Hz for analog).

NOS (Network Operating System): Manages network resources (e.g., Novell NetWare, Windows NT, Linux).

Protocol: Set of rules for network communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, SMTP, POP, FTP).

Device Driver: Software that allows a computer to communicate with hardware devices.

Types of Networks by Area

LAN (Local Area Network): Small area (home, office).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): City or campus-wide network.
WAN (Wide Area Network): Global network (Internet, satellite).

Features:

Network	Area	Speed	Ownership
LAN	Small	High	Private
MAN	City	Medium	Single/multiple orgs
WAN	Global	Low	Multiple orgs

Network Architecture

Peer-to-Peer (P2P): All devices act as client & server.
- Advantage: No admin required, failure of one device doesn’t affect others.
- Disadvantage: Low security, difficult backup.
Client-Server: Central server provides services to clients.
- Advantage: Centralized backup, better security.
- Disadvantage: High cost, requires network admin.
Centralized Network: Central server handles all processing.
- Advantage: Secure, resource sharing.
- Disadvantage: Slow processing, difficult to add workstations.

Difference: Client-Server vs Peer-to-Peer:

Feature	Client-Server	Peer-to-Peer
Roles	Server & clients	Equal roles
Security	Managed by server	Managed individually
Data management	Centralized	Decentralized

Workstation: Computer that uses network resources.
Node: Any device in a network.

LAN Topology

Network layout within a LAN.

Types:

Image of Topology

Bus Topology

Bus topology is a network configuration where all devices are connected to a single central cable known as a "bus".

Advantages of Bus Topology

It’s easy to set up and doesn’t require a lot of cables. It is used in small networks where not many devices are connected.

Disadvantage of Bus Topology

If the main cable breaks, the whole network stops working. The cable length is limited, so it’s not suitable for large networks.

Ring/Loop Topology

Ring topology is a type of network where each device is connected in a circular pattern which means each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology

Because data moves in one direction, it's easier to manage, and there are fewer data collisions. The network's performance stays consistent since data passes through each device in order.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

If one device or the connection between two devices fails, the whole network can stop working. Finding and fixing problems in the network can be harder compared to other topologies.

Star Topology

Star topology is a type of network configuration where all devices are connected to a central device, typically a hub or a switch.

Advantages of Star Topology

Failure in one device does not affect the rest of the network due to independent connections. Adding or removing devices is simple and doesn’t affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network will stop functioning. It requires more cabling and a central hub, making it more expensive compared to bus or ring topology.

Internet

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a worldwide network that connects millions of smaller networks. It allows people to share information and communicate with each other from anywhere in the world.

History of the Internet

Internet started in 1969 AD as ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
ARPANET provided communication among different government bodies and was developed by the United States Department of Defense.
In 1992 AD, the Internet was opened for worldwide use.
In Nepal, Internet service started by Mercantile Company in 1994 AD.

Advantages of Internet

Provides instant access to information on various topics.
Allows instant communication via emails, messaging apps, and video calls worldwide.
Provides access to movies, music, games, and entertainment.
Enables online shopping, banking, and other services, saving time and effort.

Disadvantages of Internet

Personal information may be exposed or misused by hackers or online services.
People can face harassment or bullying online.
Internet can be attacked by viruses and malware.
Excessive use can lead to addiction and affect daily life.

Extranet

Extranet is a private network that allows external users, like partners or suppliers, to access certain information or resources.

Intranet

Intranet is a private network accessible only to members of an organization. It is used internally to share information and resources.

Use: Intranet is used in organizations for internal communication, collaboration, and information sharing.

Why Internet is called “Network of Networks”?

The Internet is called a “network of networks” because it connects millions of smaller networks (like business, school, and government networks) worldwide into one large global network.

Services / Applications of Internet

World Wide Web (WWW)
- Developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 AD.
- Also called the Web, it is a collection of web pages and websites that we can browse and use on the Internet.
Email (Electronic Mail)
- A method of sending and receiving messages over the Internet.

Email Address Example: sarthak1@gmail.com

sarthak1 = user name
@ = separator
gmail = domain name
.com = type (commercial, organization, or network)

Advantages of Email:

Messages are sent and received quickly.
Can send and receive emails from anywhere with Internet.
Can attach files, documents, and pictures.
Can read and reply anytime, no immediate response needed.

Disadvantages of Email:

Spam (unwanted emails) can fill inbox.
Emails can be hacked or intercepted.
Not suitable for urgent messages.
Requires Internet connection.

Popular Email Services: Yahoo, Hotmail, Gmail, Outlook

Email vs Traditional Mail:

Emails are delivered instantly; traditional mail takes days or weeks.
Emails can be sent and received anywhere; traditional mail needs physical addresses.
Email is cheap and reduces use of paper, unlike traditional mail.

Mail Server – Computer/software that manages email by sending, receiving, storing, and organizing messages.
Telnet – A protocol to access another computer remotely over the Internet.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – Used to upload (send) or download (receive) files between computers over a network.
Search Engine – Helps find information online using keywords.
Examples: Google, Bing, Yahoo
IRC (Internet Relay Chat) – Lets people chat in real-time in chat rooms or channels.
Online Banking – Service provided by banks to manage accounts and conduct transactions online.
E-Commerce – Buying and selling goods/services over the Internet.
Examples: Hamrobazar, Amazon, Flipkart, Foodmandu, Myntra
ISP (Internet Service Provider) – Company that provides Internet connection.
Examples in Nepal: World Link, Mercantile, Classitech, Vianet
Web Browser – Software to access and view websites.
Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari
Web Server – Computer/software that stores and delivers web pages to users.
Video Conference – Online meeting with audio and video in real-time.
Internet Telephony – Making voice or video calls using Internet instead of telephone.
Newsgroup – Online forum to post and discuss messages on various topics.
Social Media – Platforms to share content and connect with others.
Examples: Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram

Other Important Terms

Analog Signal: Continuous waves that carry data.
IP Address: Unique number assigned to each device on a network for identification and communication.

2. Ethical and Social Issues in ICT

Computer Ethics

Computer ethics is a set of moral rules that guide the use of computers without harming others. It helps users understand what is right and wrong in computing.

Commandments of Computer Ethics:

Do not use a computer to publish fake information.
Do not search other people’s files or records without permission.
Do not delete or destroy other people’s records.
Do not use a computer to steal someone’s privacy.

Importance of Ethics in IT:
Ethics is important because it makes us disciplined. We follow rules and procedures in organizations and become aware of immoral behavior in computing.

Importance of ICT in Digital Society

ICT (Information and Communication Technology) is important because it helps us:

Talk to people anywhere.
Find information easily.
Work and learn from home.
Use online services.
Create new ideas.
ICT improves life and helps the economy grow.

Cyber Ethics – Do’s and Don’ts

Do: Ask permission before using someone else’s data.
Don’t: Do not publish fake information online.

Digital Citizenship

Digital citizenship means using technology and the internet responsibly and ethically. It involves good behavior online.

Elements of Digital Citizenship:

Digital Access: Full participation in electronic society.
Digital Commerce: Buying and selling goods online.
Digital Communication: Exchanging information electronically.
Digital Literacy: Learning how to use technology.
Digital Security: Taking precautions online.
Digital Health: Using technology for health solutions.
Digital Law: Following rules and regulations for online work.

Tips to Maintain Digital Reputation:

Think before posting online; it is hard to remove once shared.
Use privacy settings to control who sees your posts and personal info.

Digital Footprint

A digital footprint is the trail of information left by your online activities, like posts, website visits, or online purchases.

Importance of Digital Footprint:

Reputation: Online activity affects how people see you.
Future Jobs: Employers may check online profiles; a positive footprint helps.

Ways to Reduce Digital Footprint:

Avoid sharing personal information publicly.
Regularly delete unused accounts.

Managing Digital Footprint:

Delete or unsubscribe from unused accounts.
Protect privacy in content posted.
Remember that others (parents, teachers) can see your posts.
Ensure posts do not harm your or others’ reputation.

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is bullying or harassment using digital devices, internet, or social media.

Examples:

Sending rude messages.
Posting hurtful content about someone online.
Sharing embarrassing photos/videos without permission.
Creating fake profiles to pretend to be someone.

Cyber Law

Cyber law is the law that governs legal issues in cyberspace, the internet, and digital transactions.
Importance: Controls cybercrime and misuse of computers.

Examples:

Electronic and Digital Signature Law
Cyber Crime Law
Intellectual Property Law
Data Protection and Privacy Law

Why Cyber Law is Needed in Nepal:

Legalize transactions through electronic media.
Punish criminal activities using computers.

Nepal Cyber Law:

Electronic Transaction and Digital Signature Act
Introduced on 30th Bhadra 2061 (15 September 2004)

Cyberspace

Cyberspace is the virtual environment created by the internet and related devices and services.

Cybercrime

Cybercrime is illegal activity using computers, networks, or the internet, e.g., hacking, identity theft, online fraud, malware.

ICT (Information and Communication Technology)

ICT refers to using computers, internet, and digital tools to manage, communicate, and share information.

Challenges of ICT:

Security risks (cyberattacks, hacking, malware)
Privacy concerns (protecting personal information)
Digital divide (gap between people with and without technology)
Technical issues (system failures, software bugs, hardware problems)

IT Policy in Nepal

IT Policy launched in 2000 AD (2057 BS)
Latest ICT Policy: ICT Policy 2015 (2072 BS)
21 laws and 21 strategies in ICT Policy 2015

Objectives of IT Policy 2000:

Create knowledge-based industry
Increase employment
Build knowledge-based society

Vision of ICT Policy 2015:

Transform Nepal into a knowledge-based society and economy

Mission of ICT Policy 2015:

Promote development of ICT sector for sustainable development and poverty reduction

Goals of ICT Policy:

75% of population digitally literate by 2020
80% of government services online by 2020
100% internet access in Nepal by 2020
90% population access to broadband by 2020

Uses of IT Policy:

Provides rules for employees on proper use of technology
Protects digital data from cyber threats

Electronic Transaction Act (ETA)

ETA deals with cybercrime and digital transactions.

Security Tips:

Maintain privacy
Use strong passwords
Update security software

Punishment:

Rs. 50,000 to Rs. 3,00,000 fine
6 months to 3 years imprisonment

Objectives of ETA 2063:

Legalize authentication of electronic data
Ensure reliable data communication
Secure electronic communication
Regulate electronic transactions

Scopes of ETA 2063:

Digital signatures
Control cybercrime
Protect intellectual property
Protect confidentiality

Social Media

Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok, LinkedIn to share content and connect with others.

Popularity: Instant communication and global connection.

Uses:

Share content (posts, photos, videos)
Connect with others
Engage (like, comment, share)
Create personal/professional profiles

Opportunities:

Networking globally
Marketing and branding
Sharing news and education
Customer engagement

Threats:

Privacy risks
Cyberbullying
Identity theft
Misinformation

Ways to Stay Safe:

Use privacy settings
Keep info private (phone, address)
Accept requests only from known people
Use strong passwords

3. Computer Security / Cyber Security

Computer Security

Computer security is about protecting computers, networks, and data from unauthorized access, theft, damage, or disruption.

Examples of Computer Security:

Password
Biometric
Firewall
Cryptography

Types of Computer Security

Hardware Security – Protects the physical parts of a computer.
Software Security – Protects programs and data from threats.

Information Security (Infosec)

Information security protects data from being accessed, changed, or used by unauthorized people. It ensures that information is:

Confidential – Only authorized users can access it.
Accurate / Integrity – Only authorized users can modify it.
Available – Users can access it when needed.

Ways to Protect Data:

Use strong passwords
Use encryption
Use two-factor authentication
Install firewalls and antivirus
Update software regularly
Back up data
Restrict access to authorized users only

Security Threats

Security threats are risks that can harm computer systems. Examples:

Malware – Software designed to harm computers.
Phishing – Fake attempts to get sensitive info like passwords.
Hacking – Breaking into systems to steal or destroy data.

Other Threats:

Botnet – Group of infected computers controlled by hackers.
Rootkit – Hidden software giving secret access to hackers.
Keylogger – Records all keystrokes secretly.
Hacker – Person who illegally steals, destroys, or changes data.

Hacking Types:

Illegal Hacking: Without permission to steal or damage data.
Ethical Hacking: With permission to test security.

Malicious Code (Malware)

Malware is software made to damage, disrupt, or steal information.

Types of Malware:

Computer Virus: Attaches to files/programs and spreads to others.
- Examples: C-Brain, Frodo, Disk Killer, I Love You
- Symptoms: Slow programs, increased disk space use, corrupt files, renamed files
- Prevention: Use antivirus, avoid files from untrusted sources
Worm: Spreads itself to other computers without attaching to files.
Trojan Horse: Pretends to be useful software but causes harm.
Spyware: Monitors user activity secretly.
Adware: Displays unwanted ads and tracks browsing habits.

Security Mechanisms

Tools to protect computers:

Authentication Systems
Firewalls
Cryptography
Antivirus Software
Backup System

Authentication System

Verifies user identity before allowing access using:

Passwords
Biometrics

Importance of Password:

Protects data from unauthorized access.
Safeguards personal information.

Tips for Strong Passwords:

Avoid pet names, birthdays, or simple sequences (1234, abcd).
Mix letters, numbers, symbols.
Use capital and small letters.
Change passwords regularly and use different ones for different accounts.

Biometric

Uses unique physical or behavioral traits like fingerprints, face, or voice for identification.

Uses of Biometrics:

Employee attendance
Smartphones unlocking
Banking security
Access control in buildings

Biometric Verification: Confirms identity using unique traits.

Firewall

A system that monitors and controls network traffic to protect computers.

Types:

Hardware Firewall: Physical device between network and internet.
Software Firewall: Program installed on computers to filter traffic.

Uses:

Block unauthorized access
Filter network traffic

Cryptography

Cryptography protects information by coding it so only authorized people can read it.

Types:

Encryption: Converts data into coded form (ciphertext).
Decryption: Converts coded data back to readable form (plaintext).

Importance:

Protects sensitive information during storage and transmission.

Antivirus Software

Scans, detects, and removes malware to protect computers.

Examples: Norton, McAfee, Bitdefender, Kaspersky, Avast

Importance: Protects computer software and data from malicious attacks.

Backup System

A backup is a copy of important files stored separately to restore data if lost or damaged.

Hardware Security

Protects physical computer parts from theft, damage, or failure.

Measures:

Regular maintenance
Dust-free environment
Protection from fire
Theft protection
Air conditioning
Power protection devices (Volt guard, UPS, Spike guard)
Insurance

Power Protection Devices:

UPS: Provides backup power during outages
Volt Guard: Protects from voltage fluctuations
Spike Guard: Protects from voltage spikes

Software Security

Protects computer programs from:

Hacking
Virus attacks
Unauthorized access

Tools:

Backup
ScanDisk
Passwords
Antivirus

ScanDisk: Checks and fixes errors on hard drives

Digital Signature

A code attached to electronic messages to verify authenticity.

Ensures secure electronic transactions

Digital Currency

Money in electronic form used for online transactions.

Examples: Bitcoin, digital dollars

4. E-Commerce

What is E-Commerce?

E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet.
Examples: Amazon, Flipkart, eBay, Sastodeal, Daraz.
Goal: To make buying and selling online easier and convenient.
Nepali online shopping sites: daraz.com.np, nepbay.com, BhatBhatenionline.com, Metrotarkari.com, kinmel.com.np, hamrobazaar.com, muncha.com, and more.

Difference between E-Commerce and Traditional Commerce

Traditional Commerce	E-Commerce
Buying and selling without the internet.	Buying and selling over the internet.
Customers can inspect products physically before purchase.	Customers cannot inspect products physically before purchase.

Advantages of E-Commerce

Shop 24/7 from anywhere with internet.
Compare products, prices, and reviews quickly.
Access a wide range of products from different regions.
No need to travel or wait in long lines.

Disadvantages of E-Commerce

No personal touch – cannot touch products physically.
Requires Internet access; cannot work offline.
Waiting for delivery, with possible delays.
Sharing personal and payment info online can be risky.

Why E-Commerce is more popular nowadays?

People can shop anytime, anywhere, without visiting physical stores.
Online payments and orders are quick and efficient.

Types of E-Commerce Models

Business to Consumer (B2C) – Business sells directly to consumers.
- Example: Amazon sells books, electronics, clothes to users.
Business to Business (B2B) – Business sells to other businesses.
- Example: Alibaba supplies goods in bulk to retailers.
Consumer to Consumer (C2C) – Consumers sell to other consumers through a platform.
- Example: Selling old furniture on Hamrobazaar.
Consumer to Business (C2B) – Individuals sell services or products to businesses.
- Example: Freelancers on Upwork, selling photos to stock websites.

M-Commerce / Mobile Commerce

Buying and selling using mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.
Term coined in 1997 by Kevin Duffy.

Examples of M-Commerce:

Mobile Banking
Digital Wallets
Mobile Ticketing
Mobile Food Ordering

Important Services:

Mobile Shopping: Buy products via mobile apps (Daraz, Hamrobazaar, Amazon).
Mobile Payments: Pay using apps like eSewa, Khalti.

Advantages of M-Commerce:

Convenient and easy system for transactions.
Access to wide variety of products.
Saves time and energy.
Reduces business costs.

Disadvantages of M-Commerce:

Risk of hacking and data theft.
Cannot work without internet.
Security of personal information may be at risk.
Mobile payment may not be available everywhere.

Online Payment

Paying for goods or services over the internet using payment gateways.
Examples in Nepal: eSewa, iPay, Khalti, e-banking.

Modes of Online Payment:

Credit / Debit Cards
Digital Wallets
Cryptocurrencies
Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)

Advantages:

Pay anytime, anywhere globally.
Fast and easy for large transactions.
Secure payments, less risk of losing money.

Disadvantages:

Third-party service charges may apply.
Not all shops accept online payment.
Privacy concerns.
Account hacking may lead to misuse of money.

E-Commerce vs M-Commerce

M-Commerce	E-Commerce
Uses mobile devices (smartphones, tablets, PDA).	Uses desktop computers or laptops.
Devices are portable and easy to carry.	Devices are not easy to carry.

Contemporary Technology

Contemporary Technology refers to the latest and most advanced technological innovations that we use in our everyday lives.

For example: smartphones are a contemporary technology. They allow us to do things like call, text, take pictures, browse the web, and use apps, all in one device!

Cloud Computing

❖ Cloud computing is a technology that allows users to access and manage computing resources such as servers, storage, and applications over the internet.

❖ Some of the cloud providers are Amazon AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, IBM Cloud, VMware Cloud, Oracle Cloud and Alibaba Cloud.

Examples of Cloud Computing

❖ Gmail, Google Docs, Google Drive, Dropbox
❖ Microsoft 365 (Outlook, Word, Excel online)
❖ Google Compute Engine, Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines
❖ Netflix, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
❖ Zoom, Google Meet, YouTube

Advantages of Cloud Computing

❖ Access data and applications from anywhere with an internet connection
❖ Improved data backup and recovery capabilities
❖ It reduces hardware and software maintenance costs for organizations
❖ Data is stored and handled securely

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

❖ Storing sensitive data on remote servers raises privacy issues
❖ Uploading and downloading large volumes of data can be time-consuming
❖ Switching providers or platforms can be complex and costly
❖ Cloud services can experience outages, leading to disruptions in business operations

Types of Cloud Computing Services

❖ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Provides virtualized computing resources over the internet like processing, storage, and networking.
E.g. Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2, Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines and Google Cloud Compute Engine

❖ Software as a Service (SaaS): Delivers software applications over the internet. Services like Gmail, Google Drive, Office 365, Dropbox

❖ Platform as a Service (PaaS): Offers a platform for developers to build, run and manage applications over the internet.
E.g. Microsoft Azure App Service, Google App Engine, Heroku etc.

Types of Cloud

❖ Public cloud - A public cloud is a service that provides computing resources over the internet. Example: Google Drive for storing files online

❖ Private cloud - A private cloud is a computing service used by single organization. Example: A bank's own secure system for storing customer data

❖ Hybrid cloud - A hybrid cloud combines public and private clouds. Example: A company using public cloud for email and private cloud for sensitive financial data

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think and learn like humans.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence in the year 1955.

Some of the examples of AI are

❖ Video and song recommendations
❖ Voice assistants like Siri and Alexa
❖ Self-driving cars
❖ Customer service chatbots

Advantages of AI

❖ Accuracy - AI reduces human error in repetitive tasks
❖ Availability - AI systems can operate 24/7 without breaks
❖ Increased Efficiency - AI can work faster and longer than humans, processing large amounts of data quickly
❖ Personalization - AI can provide customized experiences based on individual preferences

Disadvantages of AI

❖ High Costs - Implementing AI systems can be expensive initially
❖ Lack of Creativity - AI struggles with truly creative and innovative thinking
❖ Job Displacement - Automation may lead to job losses in certain sectors
❖ Ethical Concerns - AI raises questions about privacy and fairness

Application Areas of AI

❖ Healthcare - Medical diagnosis and treatment planning
❖ Finance - Fraud detection and prevention
❖ Transportation - Self-driving cars and autonomous vehicles
❖ Agriculture - Crop and soil monitoring

"AI is for the aid of people not against" Explain

AI is created to help people by making tasks easier and improving people’s lives. For example, AI can assist doctors in diagnosing diseases quickly, suggest products online, and provide support through chatbots. Its main goal is to support and enhance human activities, not to act against them.

"Artificial Intelligence is a threat to humans" Give your opinion

Ans: "Artificial Intelligence can be a threat if not managed properly, as it might lead to job loss, privacy issues, or misuse. Poorly managed AI systems can make unfair decisions or be easily hacked, leading to security problems and biased results. AI handles routine tasks well but cannot create original ideas or solutions like humans can."

Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that creates a simulated environment, allowing users to immerse themselves in a three-dimensional (3D) world that they can interact with.

We can swim with whales in oceans, fight with aliens, fly aeroplanes, visit distant places without being there and much more within the VR.

Advantages of Virtual Reality

❖ VR makes playing games and exploring places more exciting because it feels real
❖ VR helps students learn by letting them explore virtual ancient cities or cells
❖ VR allows people to practice hard tasks, like flying a plane, safely
❖ VR lets people meet in virtual worlds, making it easy to work together from afar

Disadvantages of Virtual Reality

❖ VR equipment is expensive, so it's not affordable for everyone
❖ Using VR for a long time can cause dizziness or headaches for some people
❖ In VR, we can't move as freely as we do in the real world
❖ Some people might become addicted to VR experiences

Application Areas of VR

❖ Gaming: VR immerses players in interactive game worlds, enhancing the gaming experience by making it feel real
❖ Education: VR enables virtual field trips and interactive learning, allowing students to explore places like ancient Rome or the deep sea
❖ Healthcare: VR provides a safe environment for training doctors, allowing them to practice surgeries and medical procedures without real-world risks
❖ Travel and Tourism: VR offers virtual exploration of famous sites like the Eiffel Tower or the Great Wall of China, allowing people to experience travel from home

2.1 Database Management System Data [SEE 2073] [SLC 2064] [SLC 2070] [[SLC 2065 S] [SLC 2069 S]

Data can be numbers, letters or symbols representing facts and figures which may or may not give any sense.

E.g.: Ram, student, 20, etc.

Information [SLC 2070]

Information is an organized collection of related data, which gives a complete sense. “Ram is a student. He is 20 years old.”, is information that gives a complete sense.

Database [SEE 2074] [SEE 2073] [SEE 2073 U] [SLC 2072] [SEE 2071 S] [SLC 2064] [SLC 2065]

A database is an organized collection of related information that can be used for different purpose so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated.

E.g. Dictionary, Marks Ledger, Telephone Directory etc.

DBMS (Database Management System) [SEE 2075 U] [SEE 2074 U] [SLC 2066] [SLC 2067]

DBMS is a software which helps to extract, view and manipulate data in an organized way. In DBMS, data can be accessed, managed and updated easily.

E.g.: MS-Access, Oracle, Fox pro, Dbase etc.

Computerized Database [SQE 2075K]

a) It can store large volume of data. It is very fast to find a specific record.

b) Data can be sorted into ascending or descending order on multiple criteria.

c) The database can be kept secure by use of passwords.

d) We can search data very easily.

e) Modification is very easy in comparison of manual database.

Non-Computerized Database

a) It is limited by physical storage available.

b) It can take a while to manually search through all of the records.

c) Difficult to sort data on more than one criteria.

d) The only security would be locking up the records.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) [SQE 2074]

RDBMS is a database management system that is based on the relation model in which data is stored in the form of tables and the relationship among the data is also stored in the form of tables.

E.g.: SQL, MS-Access, Oracle, etc.

Importance / Advantages of DBMS / Computerized database [SEE 2075] [SLC 2071]

a) It controls data redundancy which means duplication of data.

b) It allows sharing the existing data by different programs.

c) Large volume of data can be stored and updated easily.

d) It provides high security of data as well as maintains accurate database.

MS-Access

MS-Access is a relational database management system developed by Microsoft Corporation which is used to store and manipulates large volume of data in the form of table.

Features of MS-Access

a) It provides the flexible ways to add, edit, delete and display the related data.

b) Queries help to view, change and analyse the data indifferent ways.

c) Forms are used for viewing and editing the information.

d) Reports are used for summarizing and printing the data.

Objects of MS-Access [SEE 2074 U] [SLC 2071]

a) Table

b) Form

c) Query

d) Report

Table

Table is an object of Ms-Access that stores large volume of data in the form of rows and columns. The different ways to create table are:

i) Design view

ii) Using wizard

iii) Entering data

Importance of table

a) Different properties of a field can be set in a table.

b) It provides options for primary key which helps to make data consistent.

Record [SEE 2075 S2]

Record is complete set of information. Record is a collection of multiple related fields in a row which gives complete information about a person or thing. E.g.: Ram Chabahil 4468790

Field [SEE 2075 S2]

Field is a small unit of information. A column in a table is called field, and it contains a specific piece of information within a record. E.g.: Name, Address, Telephone

Primary key [SEE 2075] [SEE 2073] [SEE 2071 S] [SLC 2067] [MM 2076] [PMT 2075K]

A key that uniquely identifies each record in a database is primary key. It is needed because it neither accepts duplicate values now null values.

Uses of Primary key [SLC 2069]

i) To reduce and control duplication of record in a table.

ii) To set the relationship between tables.

Purpose of Primary key [PMT 2075K]

A primary key prevents duplicate records from being entered in the table and is used to control the order in which records display in the table. This makes it faster for databases to locate records in the table and to process other operations. The primary key is also used to create a link between tables in a database.

Importance of Primary Key [SEE 2073] [SLC 2069 S] [MM 2076]

a) It does not allow duplicate data.

b) It does not allow null value

Composite key

The group of primary key that consists of two or more attributes is called composite key.

Foreign Key

Foreign key is a unique field or combination of fields in linked table whose value matches with a primary key in another table.

Data Redundancy [SEE 2074]

Data redundancy means repetition of same piece of data in a database in more than one location.. Data redundancy can be controlled in MS-Access by normalization of database.

Data type [SEE 2075 S2] [SEE 2074] [SEE 2073] [SLC 2072] [SLC 2064] [SLC 2066] [SLC 2070]

Data type is an attribute for a field that determines what type of data it can contain. Any four data types of MS-Access are:

i) Text

ii) Number

iii) Memo

iv) Currency

While designing table structure which data types are suitable to store information about teacher‟s name, address, salary and date of birth. [SLC 2065] [SLC 2068 S]

Teacher‟s name - Text Address – Text

Salary – Currency

Date of birth – Date/Time

Identify a record, field and value from the following table structure. [SQE 2074]

Roll Name Marks

1 Kopila 87

2 Rabin Rana 56

Ans: Record = 1 Kopila 87, 2 Prabin Rana 56

Field = Roll, Name, Marks Value = 87, 56

What happens when we enter text in a numeric field?

Ans: If we enter text in a numeric field then it displays the errors.

Text

It is used for storing text or combination of text and numbers. It can store up to 255 characters.

Memo

It is used for storing lengthy text and numbers. It can store up to 65,535 characters.

Field properties

The four types of field properties of MS-Access are:

i) Caption ii) Format iii) Validation rule iv) Input mask

Input mask

Input mask is a field property that controls the value of a record and sets in a specific format.

Caption

Caption is a field property which displays an alternate name for the field to make the field name more explanatory. It can contain up to 2048 characters.

Validation rule:

A field property which enables to limit values that can be accepted into a field is known as validation rule.

Validation text

A field property which allows type text to be displayed if the user input value is prohibited by the validation rule is known as validation text.

Field size

Field size is a field property that specifies the maximum number of characters allowed in the field.

Format

The use of „Format‟ field property is to display data in a different format.

Lookup Wizard

The use of Lookup Wizard is that it creates a field that allows choosing a value from another table or from a list of values by using a list box or combo box.

Hyperlink

The use of Hyperlink is that it stores hyper like addresses like email addresses, websites, database objects or other field.

Indexing

Indexing is one of the important properties of database that speed up searching and storing of records using on the field.

Relationship

Relationship is an association among several entities (table). Its types are:

i) One to one relationship

ii) One to many relationship

iii) Many to many relationship

Sorting [SEE 2073 U] [SLC 2068]

Sorting is the process of arranging the record in ascending or descending order according to a given field or fields. Sorted data is easier to handle than unsorted data.

Advantages of sorting:

i) It helps to find specific information quickly.

ii) It helps to arrange data in alphabetical order.

Filtering

Filtering is an option that selects the required records and displays the result.

Query [SEE 2075 U] [SEE 2075 S2] [SLC 2072] [SLC 2065] [SLC 2069] [SEE 2066 S] [SLC 2068 S]

Query is an object of Ms-Access which extracts and arranges information from a table in a manner that is specified.

The different types of query are:

i) Select query

ii) Action query

In action query, we have update query, append query, delete query and make-table query.

Select query

v A select query is the most common category and is used for extracting specific information from one or more tables in a database. It cannot make changes in tales.

v We use select query to group records and perform calculations on field values in the groups such as sum, count, average, minimum and maximum.

Action query

Action query is a query which makes changes to many records in just one operation.

Update query

Update query is a type of action query which make global changes to a group of records in one or more tables.

Append query

The use of append query is to add a group of records at the end from one or more tables.

Delete Query

A delete query is an action query that deletes a set of records according to criteria that is specified.

Insert Query

v Insert queries can be used to insert records from one table into another table, or from a query into a table.

v The records inserted will be appended into that table (rather than replace the previous records).

Advantages of query [SLC 2065]

a) We can filer, perform calculations and summarize data.

b) Large volume of records can be updated or deleted at a same time.

c) It retrieves and display records including some fields or all the fields of a table or multiple linked tables.

Purposes of query in MS-Access [PMT 2075K]

a) To view records including some fields or all the fields of a table or multiple linked tables.

b) To perform mathematical calculation of a data.

c) To sort the records on the basis of one or more key fields.

d) To perform mass update, delete or append new records to a table.

Form [SEE 2073 U] [SLC 2064] [SLC 2066] [SLC 2068] [SLC 2065 S] [SLC 2069 S] [SQE 2075K]

v Form is an object of Ms-Access which provides graphical interface to enter data into the tables or multiple linked tables.

v Forms are usually displayed on the screen.

v Forms generally provide a detailed took at records and usually for the people who actually work with the database.

Methods to create a form are:

i) By using auto forms features.

ii) By using the form wizard features.

iii) By using your own in design view.

Importance / Function / Advantages of form [SEE 2075] [SLC 2064, 2066, 2065 S, 2070 S

a) It provides an interactive platform for input of data into the database.

b) It helps to display data in more presentable form than a datasheet.

c) It gives a separate platform to handle data.

Report [SEE 2074 U] [SEE 2071 S] [SLC 2070] [SLC 2067 S]

v Report is an object of Ms-Access which displays the output in an effective way to present the data in a printed format.

v Reports can be previewed on the screen, but they are usually printed.

v Reports are often used to group and summarize data, and are often for the people who don‟t work with the database but who use its information for other business task.

v The data sources for report are table and query. The methods of creating report are:

i) Using design view

ii) Using report wizard

Why is Report created? [SEE 2075 U] [SLC 2067]

Report is created to print documents according to user‟s specifications of the summarized information through query or table.

Importance of report [SEE 2071 S] [SLC 2070] [SLC 2067 S]

a) It helps to prepare well formatted output.

b) It displays the information the way we want to view it.

c) It presents the information retrieved through queries or tables.

d) It presents the information in designed layouts by adding necessary titles, setting font colour or font size, etc.

Technical Term

1. Data transmission in one direction only that is to send or receive only. Simplex Mode

2. The mode of data communication in which data can be transferred in both directions at a time. Full Duplex Mode

3. Device used to connect a PC with a telephone line. MODEM

4. Device to convert analog signal into digital signal and, vice versa. MODEM

5. A network limited with a room or building. LAN

6. The computer on which users run applications. Client

7. Cabling structure of LAN. Network Topology

8. The arrangement of connection patterns of computers or nodes and others resources. Network Topology

9. Each computer or device on a network . Node

10. A device that controls two dissimilar networks . Gateway

11. The amount of data that can be transmitted through communication channels in a fixed time period. Bandwidth

12. A server where incoming emails are collected in mailbox . Mail server

13. A computer that provides services to other computer . Server

14. A main computer of a computer network. Server

15. Operating system that can handle network . Network Operating System

16. Software which controls and manages computer network. NOS (Network Operating System)

17. A powerful program that controls and coordinates a computer’s hardware devices and runs software and applications. Operating System

18. A cable that transmits light signals . Fiber Optic Cable.

19. Connection of two or more computers to share information . Computer Network

20. The network of networks . Internet

21. Sending and receiving messages electronically through the Internet . E-mail

22. Buying and selling of goods, products, or services over the Internet . E-commerce

23. The websites that search documents for specified keywords in WWW . Search engine

24. The communication program that searches documents on the basis of specified keywords and returns a list of the web links that matches the keywords. Search engine

25. A port on the back of the system unit to connect a computer in network. NIC (Network Interface Card)

26. A set of rules that are followed by computer network. Protocol

27. Amplify the signal for long-distance communication in microwave. Repeater

28. Network connecting device that boosts the data signals. Repeater

29. A set of moral principles or code of conducts that regulate the use of computers . Computer ethics

30. A code of behaviour for using the Internet . Cyber ethics

31. The use of technology as a measure of behaviour responsible for digital society . Digital citizenship

32. The recording of interaction with the digital world. Digital Footprint

33. Digital marks created while using internet. Digital Footprint

34. The legal issues related to using of inter-networked information technology . Cyber law

35. The issues related to cybercrime and also help in making and implementing laws over cybercrime . Electronic Transaction Act 36. A process of performing a variety of tech-enabled activities via virtual communities and network. Social media 37. a collective online communications channels dedicated to community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Social media

38. Combination of information technology and telecommunication technology. ICT (Information and Communication Technology)

39. A bullying that takes place over digital devices like cell phones, computers, and tablets. Cyber bullying

40. The fake attempt to obtain sensitive information . Phishing

41. The hardware or software for recording the keys pressed on a keyboard. Keylogger

42. Law that governs the legal issues of cyberspace . Cyber law

43. The skilled computer expert who uses technical knowledge to overcome a problem. Hacker

44. The kind of harmful computer code or web script designed to create system vulnerabilities . Malicious codes

45. A malicious program of computer that damages data and Software. Malware

46. A small destructive program whose intention is harms computer software and data. Computer virus

47. The process of identifying an individual usually based on a username and password . Authentication system

48. A memorized secret used to confirm the identity of a user . Password

49. The uniquely identified by evaluating one or more distinguishing biological traits. Biometric

50. The network security systems that monitors and controls the traffic flow . Firewall

51. The technology to encode file or message. Encryption

52. The method by which information is converted into secret code that hides the information's true meaning. Encryption

53. It is the process of converting plain text to cipher text. Encryption

54. An intelligent device that has ability to determine the best possible path for data transmission. Router

55. A type of program designed to detect and remove viruses from computer system. Antivirus software

56. A program that can disinfect a file from virus. Antivirus software

57. A software application used by companies for marketing purposes. Adware

58. Any software installed on your PC that collects your information without your knowledge. Spyware

59. The conversion of encrypted data into its original form. Decryption

60. The study of secure communications techniques that allow only the sender and intended recipient of a message to view its contents. Cryptography

61. Commercial transaction through mobile devices. M-Commerce

62. Paperless payment through Internet. Online payment

63. A system of interrelated computing device to exchange information over a network without human-to-human or human to computer interaction. IoT (Internet of Things)

64. A variety of devices that allow people to access data and information from wherever they are. Mobile computing

65. A set of services provided by the government to public via electronic media especially using Internet. E-Governance

66. The use of computer technology to create a simulated environment. Virtual Reality

67. An emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings.. AI (Artificial Intelligence)

68. The smallest unit to represent information on a quantum computer. Qubit (Quantum bit)

69. Crimes committed using electronic devices and cyber space. Cyber crime

70. Secret group of characters which helps to protect file from unauthorized person. Password

71. A type of network in which every computer works as both client and server. Peer to Peer Network

72. A system of copying data and information reading in computer into another location. Backup

73. A company which provides services of Internet. Internet Service Provider (ISP)

74. The internet service that enables to connect a remote or host computer. Telnet

75. Learning through the electronic media. E-learning

76. The process of repeatedly executing some code until condition satisfies. Looping

77. The protocol that makes the network communication possible. TCP/IP

78. The moral principle that controls cybercrime. Computer Ethics

79. Combination of Public and Private clouds. Hybrid Cloud

80. Hacking done with permission from the client. Ethical Hacking

81. A Private networks that allow organizations to share information and resources among the internal users. Intranet

82. The process of arranging the fragmented file in computer. Defragmentation

83. A unique numerical identifier for every device or network that connects to the internet. IP Address

84. The money that is exchanged electronically. Digital Currency

85. Software require for browsing and surfing content on the WWW. Web Browser

86. A concept of transferring data from your computer to server computer. Uploading

87. A concept of transferring data from server computer to your computer. Downloading

88. only numbers are allowed in the secret code. PIN (Personal Identification Number)

89. The combination of username and password that is used to access a resource. Credentials.

90. An applications that look like they are doing something harmless, but secretly have malicious code that does something else. Trojan

91. A way to get the investment whole or part of it back in case the computer system is damaged. Insurance

92. The process of sending and receiving data and information between two or more than two people. Communication

93. The mode of data and information that flows in both directions but only one direction at a time. Half Duplex Mode

94. Connect communication media with network devices. Connectors

95. A network device which broadcasts the information packets to all computer connected network. Hub

96. A network model where one or more powerful computers provide the different network services and all other users of computer network access those services to perform user's tasks. Client/Server Network

97. The network in which the main computer is known as host or server computer. Centralized network.

98. A collection of internet host systems that make services available on the Internet using the HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol). WWW

99. Protecting our computer and its content from damage, theft or misuse and action to prevent such incidents. Computer security

100. A logical collection of Internet-connected devices such as computers, smartphones or internet of things (IoT) devices whose security have been breached and con

Abbreviation :

Computer Abbreviation	Full Form
AAC	Advanced Audio Coding
ABR	Average Bit Rate
ADSL	Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGP	Advanced Graphics Port
AI	Artificial Intelligence
AIM	AOL Instant Messenger
ALGOL	Algorithmic Language
ALU	Arithmetic Logic Unit
AOL	America Online
AMD	Advanced Micro Devices
API	Application Program Interface
APT	Automatically Programmed Tooling
ARP	Address Resolution Protocol
ARPANET	Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
ARQ	Automatic Repeat Request
AS	Autonomous System
ASCII	American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASP	Active Server Pages
ASPI	Advanced SCSI Programming Interface
ATA	Advanced Technology Attachment
ATDT	Attention Dial Tone
AUI	Attachment Unit Interface
AUTOEXEC	Autoexec Automatic Execution file
AVI	Audio Video Interleave
BASIC	Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BCC	Blind Carbon Copy
BCD	Binary Coded Decimal
BCR	Bar Code Reader
BDSL	Broadband DSL
BEDO	Burst Extended Data Out (RAM)
BGP	Border Gateway Protocol
BHTML	Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Language
BIOS	Basic Input Output System
BIPS	Billion Instruction Per Second
BIU	Bus Interface Unit
BMP	Bitmap
BRD	Blu-Ray Disc
CC	Carbon Copy
CD	Compact Disk
CD-R	Compact Disk – Recordable
CDROM	Compact Disk Read Only Memory
CDRW	Compact Disk Rewritable
CD-WO	Compact Disk – Write Once
CD-XA	Compact Disk – Extended Architecture
CGI-BIN	Common Gateway Interface – Binary (programming for Web forms)
CIS	CompuServe Information Service
CISC	Complex Instructions Set Computers
CMD	Command
CMYK	Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black (color model)
CNM	Circulatory Network Mode
COAX	Coaxial Cable (for Ethernet and similar networks)
COBOL	Common Business Oriented Language
COMPUTER	Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for Trade/Technology, Education, and Research.
CPI	Clock / Cycle Per Instruction
CPU	Central Processing Unit
CROM	Computerized Range of Motion
CRT	Cathode Ray Tube( standard type computer monitor display
CSLIP	Compressed Serial Line Interface Protocol (Internet)
CSS	Cascading Style Sheets
CTRL	Control (computer keyboard key)
CUI	Character User Interface
DAC	Data Acquisition and Control
DAT	Digital Audio Tape
dB	Decibel
DBMS	Data Base Management System
DDL	Data Definition Language
DHTML	Dynamics Hyper Text Markup Language
DML	Data Manipulation Language
DNS	Domain Name System
DOC	Data Optimizing Computer
Doc	Document
DOS	Disk Operating System
DRAM	Dynamic Random Access Memory
DVD	Digital Video/Versatile Disc
DVDR	Digital Versatile Disk Recordable
DVDRW	Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
DCE	Data Communications Equipment
DVI	Digital Visual Interface
DVR	Digital Video Recorder
E-Commerce	Electronic Commerce
EDC	Electronic Digital Computer
EDI	Electronic Data Interchange
EDP	Electronic Data Processing
EEPROM	Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EFS	Encrypted File System
EIDE	Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
E-Mail	Electronic Mail
EPROM	Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EROM	Erasable Read Only Memory
FDD	Floppy Disk Drive
GB	Giga Byte
GDI	Graphical Device Interface
GUI	Graphical User Interface
HD	Hard Disk
HTML	Hyper Text Markup Language
HTTP	Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
I/O	Input/Output (serial and parallel ports)
IC	Integrated Circuit
IMAP	Internet Message Access Protocol
INTEL	Integrated Electronics
IOP	Input Output Processor
IP	Internet Protocol
ISDN	Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP	Internet Service Provider
IVR	Interactive Voice Response
KB	KILOBYTE
Kbps	Kilobits/Kilobytes Per Second
LAN	Local Area Network
LED	Light Emitting Diode
LLL	Low Level Language
LPT	Line Printer
MAC	Media Access Control
MAN	Metropolitan Area Network
MB	Motherboard/ Megabyte
MBASIC	Microsoft BASIC (Microsoft)
MBPS	Megabytes Per Second
Mbps	Megabits Per Second
MICR	Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
MMX	Multimedia Extensions
MODEM	Modulator Demodulator
MSCDEX	Microsoft Compact Disc Extension
MS-DOS	Microsoft – Disk Operating System
NAT	Network Address Translation
NTP	Network Time Protocol
OCR	Optical Character Reader
OMR	Optical Mark Reader
OOP	Object Oriented Programming
OS	Operating System
P2P	Point to Point Protocol
PAN	Personal Area Network
PC	Personal Computer
PCB	Printer Circuit Board
PCI	Peripheral Component Interconnect
PHP	Hypertext Preprocessor
PIXEL	Picture Element
PNG	Portable Network Graphics
PPP	Point to Point Protocol
PRN	Printer
PROM	Programmable Read Only Memory
RAM	Random Access Memory
RARP	Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
RDBMS	Relational Data Base Management System
RIP	Routing Information Protocol
RISC	Reduced Instruction Set Computer
ROM	Read Only Memory
SAM	Software Asset Management
SAN	Storage Area Network
SCSI	Small Computer System Interface
SDRAM	Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
SFTP	Secure File Transfer Protocol
SGML	Standard Generalized Markup Language
SGRAM	Synchronous Graphics RAM
SIP	Session Initiation Protocol
SIU	Serial Interface Unit
SMTP	Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNAP	Sub Network Access Protocol
SNMP	Simple Network Management Protocol
SRAM	Static Random Access Memory
SYSOP	System Operator
TCP	Transmission Control Protocol
UI	User Interface
URL	Uniform Resource Locator
USB	Universal Serial Bus
VCD	Video Compact Disk
VDU	Visual Display Unit
VIRUS	Vital Information Resource Under Siege
VRAM	Video Random Access Memory
VxD	Virtual Extended Driver
WAN	Wide Area Network
WAP	Wireless Application Protocol
WBMP	Wireless Bitmap Image
WIFI	Wireless fidelity
WLAN	Wireless Local Area Network
WML	Wireless Markup Language
WWW	World Wide Web
XGA	Extended Graphics Array
XHTML	Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language
XMF	Extensible Music File
XML	Extensible Markup Language
XMS	Extended Memory Specification
FORTRAN	Formula Translation